Although there is some evidence of changing male and female gender roles, the dominant features of masculinity in Tanzania continue to be economic autonomy and marriage. Most girls and women still consider it men's responsibility to provide for the family. This is the major reason for young men to migrate to urban areas, as they attempt to fulfil these rigidly defined social expectations. Economic success is also essential to meet another key socio-cultural expectation: marriage. Getting married and having a family is a central goal in life for most Tanzanian youth. However, many young men feel unable to compete with older, working men in the ‘sexual economy', as they are unable to meet the financial demands of young women. Without financial resources a man cannot expect to marry or even satisfy a girlfriend. The rising unemployment rates further decrease young men's access to financial resources and prevent them from fulfilling men's social expectations. Most of them will delay marriage until they have sufficient funds or employment. This delay has implications for their male identity and leads to much frustration among young men, as marriage is considered an essential rite of passage from adolescence to adulthood.

The position of girls and women in Tanzania

In this context where men are expected to be the breadwinner, boys are commonly regarded as an asset and an investment for parents when they get old. This is why boys get preferential treatment in many aspects of life, including education. This social preference for boys by family, community and the legal system gives them more options to succeed in life than girls. Many still regard girls merely as persons who should get married, with the family benefiting from the dowry paid by the husband's family.

These biological, cultural and socio-economic factors have an impact on gender socialisation at the household and community level, rendering girls increasingly vulnerable for sexual and reproductive health problems. Many girls are an easy prey for men who convince them to have unsafe sex for small cash. As a result, many get pregnant and are subsequently sent away from school. Also, many girls contract HIV and other STIs.

Sex education and sexual health

Despite the serious HIV/AIDS situation and the many education campaigns, many parents still avoid talking to their children in-depth about sex and sexuality, which remain taboo topics. Till the late 1950s, in many parts of the country special traditional sexual health training was given to boys and girls at age 13, openly discussing sexual and reproductive issues. Girls were taught how to become good mothers (unyago) and boys were taught how to become good fathers (jando). New socio-economic patterns, urban-to-rural migration and formal education systems have led almost all 120 ethnic groups in Tanzania to abandon this traditional sex education.

Currently, a big gap in sex education exists, as the primary school system has no reproductive and sexual health curriculum. Many boys and girls enter puberty before completing their primary school. Hence, at this important stage in their lives, boys and girls are forced to learn about sex and sexuality from their peers.

With the coming of HIV/AIDS in Tanzania in the early 1980s, most young men and young women were regarded as an HIV-risk-free group. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, many men turned to schoolgirls for their sexual needs. As a result, many adolescents – especially girls – were infected with HIV and are now dying of AIDS-related illnesses. Sixty percent of new HIV infections in Tanzania occur among youths under 25 years of age, mostly between 17 and 19 years of age.

Several studies have revealed that the expectation of some form of exchange in the relationships between young men and women plays a significant role in sexual coercion and rape. Young men make a distinction between forcing a girl or woman to have sex using violence or raping her, and forcing a woman to have sex after having incurred some expenses. The latter – commonly referred to as ‘date rape' – is still not considered rape by most young men.

The same studies show that, although economic factors play a key role in structuring sexual relationships between men and women, monetary gain is not the only reason for women to have sexual relationships: sexual desire and satisfaction are also important. However, some young men's frustration at their lack of money is directed toward women, who supposedly only want sex for money. Rape cases are also commonly reported in the Tanzanian media.

Despite this pervasive situation, most young men in contemporary Tanzania express their desire for real love, trust, respect and a monogamous relationship, reflecting the prevailing socio-cultural norms among men in the country. Although all young men have a strong desire to get married and have a family, for most of them this is out of reach in the immediate future because of inadequate financial resources.

Issues of gender and financial resources also interact to impact on sexuality. The power imbalance between men and women determines how sexuality is expressed and experienced. In this context of gender inequity, male sexual pleasure supersedes female pleasure and men have greater control than women over when, where, and how sex takes place. In a patriarchal society where men are expected to act as heads of the household, but are often unable to fulfil this norm due to poverty and unemployment, sexual promiscuity becomes a means of demonstrating masculinity. At the same time, women and girls, faced with even fewer opportunities for direct access to income, little access to decision-making power, as well as a socialisation process that reinforces low self-esteem, often turn to transactional sex to fulfil their daily needs. In this manner, within and outside marriage, women's bodies are often turned into a tool for negotiation and exchange.

Changing gender relations

The workplace has been the main place for changing gender relations in Tanzania. While paid jobs (for men too) have become increasingly scarce as a result of the economic crisis and subsequent economic restructuring, women have entered the informal sector, usually as business owners, to ensure their families' income. Women are also increasingly visible in paid jobs and government positions.

This change in women's position can be attributed partially to Tanzania's participation in the 1995 United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, which stressed equal rights for men and women. Tanzania is among very few sub-Saharan African countries whose constitution refutes any kind of discrimination based on sex, and recognises gender equity and equality. However, despite all these efforts, few women have been appointed to higher government positions.

In Tanzania's current socio-economic climate brought about by globalisation, privatisation, economic liberalisation and a reduced role for the state in providing health and education, there are no easy or fast solutions to the problems of unemployment and gender imbalance among the youth. Changes will require long-term commitment from government as well as the communities to which the youth themselves belong. NGO initiatives can also play an important role in facilitating change.

Advocating for social change towards gender equity

The Tanzania Gender Networking Programme (TGNP) is an NGO advocating for social transformation towards gender equality and equity, equal opportunities and equal access to, and control over resources by women, youth and other marginalised groups. In 1996, together with some 30 other NGOs, TGNP created the Feminist Activist Coalition (FemAct), a pressure group committed to facilitate social change in Tanzania and beyond.

Research and action by TGNP and FemAct have shown that HIV/AIDS and many other problems related to gender imbalance and gender socialisation cannot be separated from the extreme poverty, lack of resources and the burden of work for women. Institutional settings at the national and local levels influence the socio-cultural context that shapes the ways in which men and women interact with each other, including in sexual relationships. Despite existing gender-equity policies, women in Tanzania continue to enjoy fewer rights and privileges than men. Their access to education and training, as well their rights to property are constrained by existing patriarchal socio-cultural norms and values. Few women have access to positions of power and influence. This complex situation requires a gender analysis that challenges policies, laws and institutions that perpetuate gender inequity at all levels of society. TGNP and its FemAct partner organisations are committed to address the structural issues in families, communities and Tanzanian society as a whole, in its struggle for a more gender-balanced society.